6) John Quincy Adams - The Abolitionist

John and Abigail Adams expected much of their oldest son, John Quincy and while the pressure JQA felt at a young age is similar to what the elder John experienced, John and Abigail could offer their son opportunities and resources unavailable to John and they made sure he knew it:

“You come into life with advantages which will disgrace you if your life is mediocre… if you do not rise to the head of not only your profession, but your country it will be owing to your own laziness, slovenliness, and obstinacy,” wrote the elder John to his son.

In Paul Nagel’s John Quincy Adams: A Public Life, A Private Life I met the most surprising man I’ve encountered on my introduction to the Presidents. JQA is a man remembered mostly for sharing a name with John Adams; I’ve found that many don’t even realize he’s John’s son. While his presidency is not worth remembering, it could fairly be considered America’s first “failed presidency”, his contributions to his country were vast, his work ethic was astonishing, and his life was simply amazing.

On January 12, 1779 he wrote “A Journal By Me JQA.” John would continue that diary for nearly 70 years. JQA’s diary explored personal struggles, political triumphs and frustrations, extensive travels, and daily minutia. It is an enlightening and important piece of American history not only because of its “real-time” views of the 19^th century, but because it documents a man who spent much of his youth overseas, served as an ambassador to the Netherlands, Prussia, Russia, and England, Secretary of State, President, and Congressman (in that order!).

Part of what makes JQA so endearing is his diary, it gives us an unusually personal look into his character and thus makes him much more relatable than other historical giants. JQA appears to have struggled, at times mightily, with depression. An early trigger was his mother, Abigail, who again comes off as overbearing (as she did in John Ferling’s book on John Adams). As we learned from Ferling’s book, Abigail had many difficult years raising her children as her husband served in various posts overseas. However, her parenting style appears to have been a sort of 18^th century-helicopter/tiger-mom-hybrid. One such example occurred when she strongly encouraged JQA to break off a relationship, feeling that her son had yet to reach a point where he could sufficiently support a family. In 1818, while JQA was serving as James Monroe’s Secretary of State, Abigail passed away. JQA did not return to Massachusetts to attend the funeral.

The first Presidential photograph
to appear on this blog, and perhaps the
earliest existing photograph of a US
President (1843).

While serving as Minster to England, JQA met Louisa Johnson, the daughter of an American father and British mother. Abigail again tried to end this relationship, but the ocean between mother and son gave JQA the strength to resist his mother’s influences. JQA and Louisa wed in 1797 and would live to celebrate their golden anniversary. Louisa comes across as a strong-willed and intelligent first lady who managed an emotionally unstable husband, the resentment of her mother-in-law, personal tragedies including several miscarriages and her son’s suicide, extensive world travel, and the bitter political battles that JQA engaged in over his career. Nagel says that Louisa’s letters give evidence to a strong strength of intellect, which he believes may have surpassed her husband’s had she received more education.

John had a lifelong passion for literature and composed a great deal of poetry, wrote a widely-distributed travel report on the European region of Silesia, and spent nearly a year translating Christoph Martin Wieland’s Oberon poem to English from German. Adam’s translation of Oberon wasn’t published until 1940, but the editor, A.B. Faust said that it was “remarkable for its fidelity to the original and its genuine artistry.” JQA often expressed a desire to retire from politics and focus on writing, however he could never pull himself away – after being defeated by Andrew Jackson for a second presidential term, something he seemed genuinely relieved about, he went on to represent Massachusetts in Congress for another 17 years until, literally, collapsing on the floor of the US House of Representatives at age 80.

You’ll note that I’ve said little about JQA’s time as President and that’s because his many accomplishments worth remembering did not happen while he was in the White House. As Secretary of State, JQA was deeply involved in developing the philosophy that was to become the Monroe Doctrine, ever the diplomat JQA felt the Doctrine should be communicated through back channels. However, Monroe’s desire to incorporate it into the State of the Union won out.

When John’s accomplishments are remembered today, it is often his opposition to slavery. While his motivations are sometimes questioned, as many of the Southern politicians who backed slavery where John’s enemies, it can not be debated that John spent the majority of his 17 years in the House of Representatives fighting against the spread of slavery to new states and the “Gag Rule” which prevented discussion of slavery in Congress. Additionally, JQA argued in front of the Supreme Court in defense of the enslaved Africans who had captured the slave ship Amistad and ultimately won their freedom.

JQA’s life was fascinating and I would encourage any one with an interest in history or great people to explore his life. He was groomed for greatness and achieved it. He was a tortured soul whose life spanned much of the time between the Revolution and the Civil War.  At times he rose above politics in a way that we often wish politicians would today, yet at times he succumbed to partisan rancor in a way we would find all too familiar today. Despite his shortcomings, I can say without hesitation, that he is my favorite President to this point.

5) James Monroe - The Last Cocked Hat

Even when looked at in comparison to other great men of his time, James Monroe led a remarkable life. His childhood was not easy; school was a 5-mile trek through the Virginia wilderness that had to be made, musket in hand, three months out of the year. By sixteen both of his parents had passed. History has James’ influential uncle, Judge Joseph Jones to thank for the fifth president of the United States. Jones paid the family’s debts, gave James’s older sister the wherewithal to raise their two younger brothers, and brought James with him to Williamsburg, where Jones was a member of the House of Burgesses, and enrolled James at the College of William & Mary.

At William & Mary, Monroe was exposed to the simmering resentment against the Crown and shortly thereafter dropped out of class to join the Virginia Infantry. Monroe’s regiment marched to New York, but arrived after the American retreat from New York City was underway (explained in more detail during the George Washington posts). Monroe was in the group of soldiers Washington led across New Jersey into Pennsylvania during the winter of 1776 and was one of the soldiers to cross the Delaware. At the ensuing Battle of Trenton, Monroe took a musket ball to the chest and escaped death thanks to the work of a field medic.

Monroe is depicted holding the flag in Emanuel Leutze's
famous painting, "Washington Crossing the Delaware"  

Following the war, Monroe returned to William & Mary where he received tutoring from his uncle’s acquaintance, Thomas Jefferson. Monroe’s uncle was elected to the Continental Congress in 1782 and recommended Monroe to take his seat on the Virginia Assembly, a post he would win. Monroe’s seat on the Virginia Assembly marked the first in a long string of political offices he would hold including US Congressman, US Senator, ambassador to France during the French Revolution, ambassador to England, minister to Spain, Governor of Virginia, Secretary of State, Secretary of War during the War of 1812, and President of the United States.

The list of offices that Monroe held hints at his proximity to many important events in American history. James, his wife Elizabeth, and their eight-year-old daughter Eliza set out for France in 1794, they stepped off the boat into the genocide that was the French Revolution – 17,000 were already dead and nearly half-a-million were in prisons. Monroe spent much of the goodwill he built up with the French leaders extracting Americans from French prisons. In one of the more interesting stories of his time in France, Monroe set out to free Marquis de Lafayette’s wife, Adrienne, who had been imprisoned after the Marquis fell afoul of the Jacobins. Elizabeth insisted on visiting Adrienne herself and the resulting scene, combined with Monroe’s diplomatic efforts, so affected the French people that Adrienne was released shortly thereafter. The Monroes reunited Adrienne with her son, George Washington Lafayette, who James then issued an American passport to get him out of France. While in the United States, Lafayette’s son would briefly live with his namesake.

Monroe’s efforts during the Jefferson administration are his most enduring. In 1803, Jefferson asked Monroe to travel back to France to help negotiate the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from the French. His instructions were specific to the purchase of just the two territories mentioned above and he was further instructed to spend no more than $9 million. However, Monroe sensed that Napoléon desired to exit North America altogether and he arranged the purchase of an area larger than Great Britain, France, German, Spain, and Portugal combined. Monroe agreed to $15 million in exchange for what was to become known as the Louisiana Purchase, it would become the largest peaceful transition of land from one nation to another in history. Despite some concern about how the country would react, and Jefferson’s brief contemplation about the Constitutionality of the purchase, Congress approved the purchase and the United States doubled in size.

James Monroe played an important role in the War of 1812 as well, during Madison’s administration he took control of the War Department from the hapless, and possibly treasonous, John Armstrong. After the war, Monroe succeeded Madison in the Nation’s highest office and presided over a prolonged period of peace, which would become known as the Era of Good Feelings. So good were the feelings that Monroe won reelection with 231 of the 235 electoral votes, this count included 3 abstentions and 1 vote for John Quincy Adams (rumored to have been a symbolic vote meant to preserve Washington’s place in history as the only unanimously elected president). During his penultimate State of the Union Address, Monroe would articulate the concept for which he is most remembered, the Monroe Doctrine. The Doctrine sought to prevent European meddling in the affairs of the United States and its neighbors, but has since been invoked by many presidents seeking to protect American interests. Like Thomas Jefferson and John Adams before him, James Monroe would die on July 4^th, 55 years after the founding of the Republic.

While James Monroe seems to have been a great American, Harlow Giles Unger’s book was difficult to get through. The hero-worship for Monroe was, at times, laughable and severely detracted from my enjoyment of the book. Unger considers the presidents preceding Monroe “mere caretakers,” a view that he shares with few others. The book never touches on Monroe’s slave ownership, which seems worth writing about because I don’t believe he inherited any. Unger also writes about Madison as though he was a sickly, bumbling fool who cowered behind Monroe as Monroe held his presidency, and the nation, together.

With the end of Monroe’s presidency the revolutionaries have also passed us by. Next up, John Quincy Adams and the beginnings of the slow march toward the Civil War.

4) James Madison - Father of the Constitution

It now feels like I've began my presidents project in earnest. Not only have I made it through four presidents, but James Madison is the first president who isn’t well known to modern Americans. Lynne Cheney’s book is subtitled ‘A Life Reconsidered’ and it sets out to “[explode] the myths that have burdened his reputation.” I wasn’t aware of said myths, but I was ready for fireworks.

James Madison was the driving force behind one of the two bedrock documents of the United States. While everyone remembers that Thomas Jefferson penned the Declaration of Independence, Americans rarely recall that James Madison is the “Father of the Constitution”. Additionally, while he didn’t believe them to be necessary and didn’t initially support them, Madison shaped the amendment process and shepherded the Bill of Rights through Congress.

Madison was like many presidents in that many of his great accomplishments occurred before assuming the nation’s highest office. Despite having won a war for independence from Great Britain, America in the mid-1780s was less a united country than a loose-affiliation of nation-states. Those nation-states were bound by the Articles of Confederation, a document that reflected 18^th century Americans’ deep mistrust of centralized government. In 1787 representatives from the different states gathered at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. Representing Virginia, James Madison arrived in Philadelphia fearing the dissolution of the United States and planned not to amend, but to create a new, stronger government.

We owe much of what we know about the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention to the exhaustive notes that Madison took. Without Madison’s voluntary effort to record the conversations and arguments, an effort he later said “nearly killed him,” we would know little about what was said inside the Pennsylvania State House in the summer of 1787. I came away from Cheney’s book believing that this effort was Madison’s most underappreciated contribution to the United States.

After the Constitution was signed the hard work wasn’t over. The document had to be ratified by the states and there was deep suspicion about the newly proposed government. Because of these doubts, particularly in Virginia and New York, Alexander Hamilton began a campaign to convince New York to support ratification. Hamilton drafted Madison and John Jay for a campaign that, while lasting less than a year, yielded 85 essays. Though Hamilton later claimed to have written 63 of the essays, historians generally accept that fifty-one were written by Hamilton, twenty-nine by Madison, and five by Jay. Besides helping to encourage ratification, Madison’s work on the Federalist Papers is notable for two other reasons. First, these works, which have become a part of American canon, were authored anonymously. Second, Hamilton and Madison would become bitter rivals later in their political lives.

While Madison’s work toward ratification was remarkable, it is important not to trivialize Madison’s work on the creation of the Constitution. While difficult, it is important to study 18^th century American history without the assumption that the United States was inevitable. The states in the late-1700s were far less “united” than they are today. Madison had to shape a document sensitive to the differing desires, fears, and mistrusts of the states. The final product was a document that no one loved (something that may be surprising to us today), but those that fought for the Constitution believed it was superior to the Articles and was the only way to prevent disunion.

While Dolley Madison in many ways
helped to shape the modern first lady,
she is often remembered for saving the
above portrait of George Washington
from destruction during the War of 1812.

Health was a constant struggle for Madison. He battled epilepsy and it seems to have been a private battle due to the supernatural stigmas attached to the condition. The time at which Madison assumed the office of the president was a particularly stressful time. Jefferson’s embargo as well as war in Europe had created a tinderbox. A letter from Madison’s cousin after his election said in part, “You will indeed, I fear, have a stormy time to encounter, but that is the season in which the pilot discovers his superior skill.” The tinderbox ultimately ignited into the War of 1812 which saw the burning of Washington DC, likely in retaliation for the razing of Parliamentary offices in York (Toronto). The War of 1812 is remembered as a war that accomplished nothing. The Treaty of Ghent, which ended the war, brought relations between Great Britain and the United States back to their pre-war status quo. The Treaty failed to address the simmering issues between the two nations such as the impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy or the refusal of England to abandon their forts in the western United States. However, the world had changed during the War. Napoleon was exiled and England and France were no longer at war, therefore the impressment issue was largely moot. Ultimately, the War of 1812 was significant in that it improved Americans’ view of the strength of their country, the world’s view of American strength, and helped secure American control over northwestern territories thus encouraging westward expansion. And of course the Battle of Baltimore inspired the country’s national anthem.

Madison’s efforts to bind the nation with the Constitution were not able to prevent the Civil War that he and other founders feared. However, the Constitution remained after the war ended and the amendment process that Madison crafted ultimately ended American slavery and help stitch the nation back together.

3) Thomas Jefferson - The Sage of Monticello

While it’s probably unfair, I approached Thomas Jefferson with more of a negative bias than Washington or Adams. Prior to this project, I didn’t know much beyond the well-worn legends about our first two presidents. However, I can remember the beating that Jefferson took in the popular press when DNA studies linked him to his enslaved concubine in the 1990s.

I call my bias “probably unfair” because Jefferson was far from the only slaveholder we lionize today. Eight of the first ten presidents were slaveholders, John and John Quincy Adams the exceptions. The issue of Sally Hemings is difficult on many levels, the obvious being that she was Jefferson’s slave. She was also 30 years Jefferson’s junior. The third issue first struck me when reading about Washington. Many rationalize slavery as a part of 18th century life in the United States, something we can’t hold against the founders. I believe that is partially true. However, it is clear that Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and many other prominent slaveholders knew slavery was morally repugnant. Unfortunately, these men did little to purge the United States of the institution of slavery, believing abolition and independence were battles that could not be won simultaneously. That these men were also unable to rid their own lives of dependence on slavery causes one to question their commitment. The belief that abolition and independence had to be achieved separately was based largely on Jefferson’s failed efforts to liberalize slavery laws in Virginia while a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in the General Assembly, and in the Continental Congress when a passage on the abolition of the slave trade was struck from the Declaration of Independence. These efforts have to be weighed against the fact that Jefferson both owned slaves and believed that when slavery was eventually abolished, the two races would never be able to coexist. Slavery displays the complexity and hypocrisy of Jefferson’s character.

By the end of Meacham’s book, I had a much greater appreciation for Jefferson’s contribution to the United States today. Jefferson’s early writings helped galvanize Virginian opposition to the British, from his quill came the Declaration of Independence, as Minister to France he helped establish trade agreements between France and the United States, with the Louisiana Purchase he doubled the size of the country, he organized westward exploration trips (including the famed Lewis & Clark expedition) to better understand the country, and founded the University of Virginia to name some of his greatest contributions.

No leader is perfect. Jefferson was maligned for decisions he made as governor of Virginia during the Revolution. As British forces closed in on Virginia, Jefferson waited too long to assemble the militia allowing Benedict Arnold to rampage across the state. Further, Jefferson’s decision to flee Monticello ahead of a British plot to kidnap him was a source of embarrassment for the rest of his life. That Jefferson was supposed to sit at Monticello waiting to be captured sounds ridiculous to me, however the late 18th century was a time when men defend their honor by duel. From this event comes a great anecdote about Jack Jouett, the 6 foot 4, 220 pound Virginia militiaman who embarked on a harrowing, 40 mile, nighttime ride to warn the future president of the plot. The thrashing that Jouett’s face took from this ride was said to leave scars for the rest of his life.

The Embargo Act of 1807 was likely his most difficult decision as president. The Act is amazing in its severity; all the more amazing when considering it was signed by a president who had championed a weaker central government. The Act was in response to continued harassment of American ships by the British and it outlawed the export of all goods from the United States. The embargo proved impossible to fully enforce and damaged both the United States and British economies. While the embargo did not prevent war with England, which would come in 1812, many historians believe that by delaying a war which the United States was not yet prepared to fight, the embargo was not a complete failure.

Something I enjoy most when reading about the founding fathers is quotes that contradict the ideals often attributed to them today. We often hear the founders referred to as if they were a singular group who labored in unison to create a perfect government. This notion is evoked when a modern politician is perceived to be following a course counter to the founders. Late in life, Jefferson said the following:

They ascribe to the men of the preceding age a wisdom more than human, and suppose what they did to be beyond amendment. I knew that age well: I belonged to it… I am certainly not an advocate for frequent and untried changes in laws and constitutions… but I know also that laws and institutions must go hand in hand with the progress of the human mind… We might as well require a man to wear still the coat which fitted him when a boy, as civilized society to remain ever under the regimen of their barbarous ancestors.

I don’t believe I can sum-up my reading of Jefferson better than Jon Meacham summed-up Jefferson with the following passage:

Had he been only a philosopher he would not have endured as he does. Had he been only a legislator, or only a diplomat, or only an inventor, or only an author, or only an educator, or even only a president he would not have endured as he does. He endures because we can see in him all the varied and wondrous possibilities of the human experience – the thirst for knowledge, the capacity to create, the love of family and of friends, the huger for accomplishment, the applause of the world, the marshaling of power, the bending of others to one’s own vision. His genius lay in his versatility; his larger political legacy in his leadership of thought and of men.

2) John Adams - Father of the Navy

Following George Washington’s biography it is striking how different the second president of the United States was from the first. Washington was a farmer from Virginia, Adams a lawyer from outside Boston. Washington was a remarkably profligate consumer while Adams was prudent in the management of his personal finances. Washington was reserved, Adams was outspoken. Washington left the United States only very briefly as a young man while Adams spent much of his political career representing his country in Europe. Washington spent almost the entirety of his public life revered, while Adams often felt unappreciated by his contemporaries.

Abigail and John, often pictured in their later years, are
depicted here aged 22 and 31, respectively.

The beginning of Adams’ career is surprising to the uninitiated. While British resentment was simmering in Massachusetts, John Adams defended the Redcoat perpetrators in court much to the chagrin of his cousin, Samuel Adams. Ironically, Adam’s successful defense of the British soldiers made him an attractive choice to counteract the perception of Massachusetts’s delegation as a bunch of radicals. Once in Philadelphia, it was Adams that arguably led the divided Congress toward acceptance of independence.

After the Congress ratified the Declaration of Independence, on which Adams worked closely with Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin, Adam’s public duties took him to Europe where he served as an American diplomat in France, the Netherlands, and England. While in France he clashed with Benjamin Franklin whom Adams felt wasn’t a strong enough advocate for the American cause.

Common (American) knowledge says that John and Abigail’s marriage was extremely close and loving. While their numerous correspondences do show that they loved each other deeply and that Abigail made many thoughtful and insightful contributions to John’s political thinking, John Ferling paints a picture of John Adams as a largely absent father and husband. John’s many years spent in Philadelphia and Europe caused him to miss the childhood of his children and signs of the strain this put on his marriage are evident in some of the letters written by Abigail and by the amount of time that passed between letters Adams was alone in France (Abigail later joined him).

The election of George Washington as the first president of the United States was never in doubt, yet Adam’s felt the office of Vice Presidency was beneath him. He served nonetheless, and probably never truly considered rejecting the post. After Washington’s two terms, Adams was elected and served one term in what is often considered a flawed presidency. Despite some signs of Adams’s lack of political acumen, such as his retention of Washington’s cabinet which was more loyal to Alexander Hamilton than himself, the action that likely cost Adams a second term was his most important action as president. During the Quasi War with France, Adams resisted political pressure to declare war on France and was able to prevent American involvement in a largely European conflict that surely would have been grueling for the young republic. Adams was bitter about the effect this had on his popularity and his ability to secure reelection in 1800, but to his credit he did not second guess his decision to avoid war with France which is evident in his request for his gravestone to read 'Here lies John Adams, who took upon himself the responsibility of peace with France in the year 1800.'

I think that John Adams’ defeat in the 1800 election is sufficiently explained in my prior post ‘A Saturday Interview.’ Following that defeat Adams' largely withdrew from public life despite living for another quarter century. The letters that resulted from the rekindling of his friendship with Thomas Jefferson are the most enduring part of John’s legacy to come from this period of his life.

In addition to an outline of Adams’s life, Ferling’s biography presented some interesting information on life in America in the late 18^th century. For example, at the time that Adams went to Harvard only ½ of 1% of American men and no women attended college. Ferling also explained the solitary and dangerous method by which people were inoculated against small pox wherein the patient was exposed to a small amount of small pox via an incision. The illness was then allowed to run its course as the patient was quarantined sometimes with others who were inoculated. 

Ferling also helped the reader to better understand Adams, teaching us about Adams’s belief that an under-and-over class and subsequent class warfare was unavoidable in a society and that a governing legislature should be designed in such a way as to represent both classes and alleviate tensions. Readers also learned about the guilt Adams felt at having never served in the military, going so far as to appear in military uniform during public appearances during the Quasi War with France.

While historians seem to agree that Adams is not one of America’s great presidents, his greatness is evident in his respect for the rule of law, his work at the Continental Congress, and his fierce independence and thus avoidance of full-scale military conflict with France during the Quasi War. After reading Ferling’s biography, I would argue that Adams was instrumental in Congress’s acceptance of separation from England and the structure of the subsequent American government. So if it is decided that Adams was not a great president, I’d say that Adams was still a crucially important founder and a great American.

ASIDE: A Saturday Interview

A benefit to living in the New York City area is that; like Philadelphia, Boston, and Virginia; there are a lot of field trips to go on when learning about the founders. Last Saturday, my wife and I went on a three mile walk from our apartment to one of those sites.

Atop the Palisades in Weehawken, New Jersey, not far from where General Washington watched his troops get routed by the British at Fort Washington, is the location where Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr’s rivalry came to a head.

While my presidential biographies will examine the prelude to Burr and Hamilton’s disastrous encounter several times, the story, as I currently understand it, goes as such…

The election of 1800 pitted Republicans Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr against Federalists John Adams and Charles Pinckney. This was prior to the 12^th Amendment so each member of the Electoral College cast two votes for president with the top two candidates becoming President and Vice President. In the event of a tie, the House of Representatives decided the election.

Alexander Hamilton despised Jefferson. They were at opposite ends of the political spectrum. However, Hamilton also hated fellow Federalist John Adams for his opposition to the New Army in which Hamilton would serve in leadership. Hamilton, a man with many enemies, also had a history with Burr who had won a US Senate seat from Hamilton’s father-in-law.

In the election of 1800, Jefferson and Burr tied. Instead of acknowledging that Jefferson was president, Burr engaged with Federalists in the House attempting to outline a deal by which they could swing the election in his favor. It took 36 ballots, but eventually Jefferson prevailed. Not only had Burr lose the presidency, but he lost the trust of his president.

Due to his intrigue with the Federalists, Jefferson informed Burr that he would not be his running-mate in 1804. Burr sought the New York governorship as a consolation prize, a notion that spooked Hamilton who believed Burr could use the governorship to galvanize or fracture New York Federalists, either way marginalizing Hamilton. While not directly involving himself, Hamilton orchestrated an all-out smear campaign ensuring Burr’s defeat. The following June, Burr came across a newspaper article claiming that Hamilton had called Burr a “dangerous” and “untrustworthy” man. Now that Burr had something substantial to implicate Hamilton in the mudslinging, he wrote to Hamilton demanding to know the truth. Instead of denying the charge, and likely ending the ordeal, Hamilton quibbled about Burr’s choice of words prompting a second letter from Burr specifying that he wanted to know whether Hamilton had called his honor into question. To this Hamilton replied, “I have no other answer to give than that which has already been given.” A few additional letters changed hands, but at this point their fates were sealed.

As dueling was punishable by death in New York, it was spoken about cryptically. The “interview”, therefore, was scheduled for July 11, 1804. It was to be held in New Jersey where duelers were treated less harshly. Burr arrived first with his friend William Van Ness, Hamilton came with Nathanial Pendleton as his “second”. A doctor and the oarsmen waited out of sight, to limit the number of witnesses, as the duel commenced. No one knows exactly what followed. Van Ness and Pendleton initially issued a joint statement, however they never fully agreed on the events that took place. Both Hamilton and Burr had devotees who sought to shape the sequence of events that day in order to best defend their man’s reputation.

What is known is that, while neither man likely expected to die, Hamilton suffered a mortal “gut shot”. He would live for another 31 hours, but never fully regain consciousness. Burr was charged with murder, charges that were eventually dropped. While he was able to serve out his term as Vice President, his political career was effectively over. Following the vice presidency he traveled out West, then to Europe, then back to New York where he would die 32 years after the duel.

A great succinct account of the duel and the political atmosphere surrounding it can be found in Joseph Ellis’s book Founding Brothers. Below are some pictures I took from the location around the dueling site. To my disappointment, the ledge on which the duel occurred no longer exists.

Overlooking the Hudson River and Manhattan.

A promenade overlooks New York City.

A bust of Hamilton, along with a plaque commemorating
the site, sits at the cliff's edge.

The current Weehawken waterfront consists of expensive,
luxury apartment buildings. 

A view capturing both the Empire State Building to
the left and the new One World Trade to the right.

ASIDE: A Few Interesting Facts to Wrap-up Washington

• The American mule, a cross between a male donkey and a female horse, can trace its roots back to Mount Vernon where Washington pioneered the breeding of them in America.

• Washington was mostly deaf by the end of his presidency. William Maclay wrote of a dinner with the president that, “he seemed more in good humor than ever I saw him, tho he was so deaf that I believe he heard little of the conversation.”

•  Washington instituted our Thanksgiving holiday to thank God for the “tranquility, union, and plenty” of the country.

• Middle Eastern terrorism was not just a twenty-first century issue. North African pirates disrupted Mediterranean trade and would demand bribes under the threat of forced conversion to Islam. Washington once paid a bribe to secure the release of 11 American merchant ships and 100 prisoners, an act that led to the creation of the first US warships inaugurating the US Navy.

• While the Whiskey Rebellion wasn’t a highlight of Washington’s presidency, it did allow for the only time in US history where the sitting president supervised troops in a combat situation. Washington was 62 years old at the time.

• To highlight how unusual Washington’s behavior in relinquishing his leadership roles seemed to European onlookers, King George III said that by giving up his military and political power Washington proved himself to be “the greatest character of the age.”

• A fitting quote to wrap up Washington comes in a letter he wrote at the end of his second term to John Trumbull. Many were imploring Washington to stand for a third term, but he had made up his mind to retire: “I trust that the good sense of our countrymen will guard the public weal against this and every other innovation, and that, although we may be a little wrong now and then, we shall return to the right path with more avidity.”